Manufacture of Paper and Paperboard
Preparation of Stock
Mechanical squeezing and pounding of cellulose fibre permits water to penetrate its structure, causing swelling of the fibre and making it flexible. Mechanical action, furthermore, separates and frays the fibrils, submicroscopic units in the fibre structure. Beating reduces the rate of drainage from and through a mat of fibres, producing dense paper of high tensile strength, low porosity, stiffness, and rattle.

An important milestone in papermaking development, the Hollander beater consists of an oval tank containing a heavy roll that revolves against a bedplate. The roll is capable of being set very accurately with respect to the bedplate, for the progressive adjustment of the roll position is the key to good beating. A beater may hold from 135 to 1,350 kilograms (300 to 3,000 pounds) of stock, a common size being about 7 metres (24 feet) long, 4 metres (12 feet) wide, and about 1 metre (3.3 feet) deep. A centre partition provides a continuous channel.

Pulp is put into the beater, and water is added to facilitate circulation of the mass between the roll and the bedplate. As the beating proceeds, the revolving roll is gradually lowered until it is riding full weight on the fibres between it and the bedplate. This action splits and mashes the fibres, creating hairlike fibrils and causing them to absorb water and become slimy. The beaten fibres will then drain more slowly on the paper machine wire and bond together more readily as more water is removed and the wet web pressed. Much of the beating action results from the rubbing of fibre on fibre. Long fibres will be cut to some extent.

The beater is also well-adapted for the addition and mixing of other materials, such as sizing, fillers, and dyes. By mounting a perforated cylinder that can rotate partially immersed in the beater stock, water can be continuously removed from the beater, and the stock therefore can be washed.

Although many design modifications have been made in the Hollander beater over the years, the machine is still widely used in smaller mills making specialty paper products. For large production modern mills have replaced the beater by various types of continuous refiners.

In mills that receive baled pulp and use refiners, the pulp is defibred in pulpers. While there are a number of variations in basic design, a pulper consists essentially of a large, open vessel, with one or more bladed, rotating elements that circulate a pulp-water mixture and defibre or separate fibres. The blades transform the pulp or wastepaper into a smooth mixture. Unlike beaters and refiners, pulpers do not reduce freeness and cause fibrillation in the fibres. A typical pulper has a capacity of 900 kilograms (2,000 pounds) of fibre in 6 percent solution and requires 150 horsepower to drive it.

The original continuous refiner is the Jordan, named after its 19th-century inventor. Like the beater, the Jordan has blades or bars, mounted on a rotating element, that work in conjunction with stationary blades to treat the fibres. The axially oriented blades are mounted on a conically shaped rotor that is surrounded by a stationary bladed element (stator).

Like other refiners, the disk refiner consists of a rotating bladed element that moves in conjunction with a stationary bladed element. The disk refiner's plane of action, however, is perpendicular to the axis of rotation, simplifying manufacture of the treating elements and replacement. Since the disk refiner provides a large number of working edges to act upon the fibre, the load per fibre is reduced and fibre brushing, rather than fibre cutting, may be emphasized.

Sizing has been described above as the treatment given paper to prevent aqueous solutions, such as ink, from soaking into it. A typical sizing solution consists of a rosin soap dispersion mixed with the stock in an amount of 1 to 5 percent of fibre. Since there is no affinity between rosin soap and fibre, it is necessary to use a coupling agent, normally alum (aluminum sulfate). The acidity of alum precipitates the rosin dispersion, and the positively charged aluminum ions and aluminum hydroxide flocs (masses of finely suspended particles) attach the size firmly to the negatively charged fibre surface.

Paper intended for writing or printing usually contains white pigments or fillers to increase brightness, opacity, and surface smoothness, and to improve ink receptivity. Clay (aluminum silicate), often referred to as kaolin or china clay, is commonly used, but only in a few places in the world (Cornwall, in England, and Georgia, in the United States) are the deposits readily accessible and sufficiently pure to be used for pigment. Another pigment is titanium dioxide (TiO2), prepared from the minerals rutile and anatase. Titanium dioxide is the most expensive of the common pigments and is often used in admixture with others.

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), also used as a filler, is prepared by precipitation by the reaction of milk of lime with either carbon dioxide (CO2) or soda ash (sodium carbonate, Na2CO3). Calcium carbonate as a paper filler is used mainly to impart improved brightness, opacity, and ink receptivity to printing and magazine stocks. Specialty uses include the filling of cigarette paper, to which it contributes good burning properties. Because of its reactivity with acid, calcium carbonate cannot be used in systems containing alum.

Other fillers are zinc oxide, zinc sulfide, hydrated silica, calcium sulfate, hydrated alumina, talc, barium sulfate, and asbestos. Much of the filler consumed is used in paper coatings (see below).

Since most fillers have no affinity for fibres, it is necessary to add an agent such as alum to help hold the filler in the formed sheet. The amount of filler used may vary from 1 to 10 percent of the fibre.

The most common way to impart colour to paper is to add soluble dyes or coloured pigment to the paper stock. Many so-called direct dyes with a natural affinity for cellulose fibre are highly absorbed, even from dilute water solution. The so-called basic dyes have a high affinity for groundwood and unbleached pulps.

Various agents are added to paper stock to enhance or to modify the bonding and coherence between fibres. To increase the dry strength of paper, the materials most commonly used are starch, polyacrylamide resins, and natural gums such as locust bean gum and guar gum. The most common type of starch currently used is the modified type known as cationic starch. When dispersed in water, this starch assumes a positive surface charge. Because fibre normally assumes a negative surface charge, there is an affinity between the cationic starch and the fibre.

The natural cellulose interfibre bonding that develops as a sheet of paper dries is considered to be due to interatomic forces of attraction known to physical chemists as hydrogen bonding or van der Waals forces . Because these attractive forces are neutralized or dissolved in water, wet paper has practically no strength. Although this property is convenient for the recovery of wastepaper, some papers require wet strength for their intended use. Wet strength is gained by adding certain organic resins to the paper stock that, because of their chemical nature, are absorbed by the fibre. After formation and drying of the sheet, the resins change to an insoluble form, creating water-resistant bonds between fibres.
   
Formation of Paper Sheet by Machines
In a paper machine, interrelated mechanisms operating in unison receive paper stock from the beater, form it into a sheet of the desired weight by filtration, press and consolidate the sheet with removal of excess water, dry the remaining water by evaporation, and wind the traveling sheet into reels of paper. Paper machines may vary in width from about 1.5 to 8 metres (5 to 26 feet), in operating speed from a few hundred metres to 900 metres (about 3,000 feet) per minute, and in production of paper from a few tons per day to more than 300 tons per day. The paper weight (basis weight) may vary from light tissue, about 10 grams per square metre (0.03 ounce per square foot), to boards of more than 500 grams per square metre (1.6 ounces per square foot).

Traditionally, paper machines have been divided into two main types: cylinder machines and Fourdrinier machines . The former consists of one or more screen-covered cylinders, each rotating in a vat of dilute paper stock. Filtration occurs by flow action from the vat into the cylinder, with the filtrate being continuously removed. In the Fourdrinier machine a horizontal wire-screen belt filters the stock. In recent years a number of paper machines have been designed that depart greatly from traditional design. These machines are collectively referred to as "formers." Some of these formers retain the traveling screen belt but form the sheet largely on a suction roll. Others eliminate the screen belt and use a suction cylinder roll only. Still others use two screen belts with the stock sandwiched between, with drainage on both sides.

In a typical modern Fourdrinier machine the various functional parts are the headbox; stock distribution system; Fourdrinier table, where sheet formation and drainage of water occur; press section, which receives the wet sheet from the wire, presses it between woolen felts, and delivers the partially dried sheet to the dryer section; dryer section, which receives the sheet from the presses and carries it through a series of rotating, steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining moisture; size press, which permits dampening the sheet surface with a solution of starch, glue, or other material to improve the paper surface; calender stack, for compressing and smoothing the sheet; and the reel.

The function of the headbox is to distribute a continuous flow of wet stock at constant velocities, both across the width of the machine and lengthwise of the sheet, as stock is deposited on the screen. Equal quantities of properly dispersed stock should be supplied to all areas of the sheet-forming surface. The early headbox, more commonly called a flowbox or breastbox, consisted of a rectangular wooden vat that extended across the full width of the machine behind the Fourdrinier breast roll. The box was provided with baffles to mix and distribute the stock. A flat metal plate extending across the machine (knife slice) improved dispersion of the fibre suspension, providing distribution of flow across the machine, and also metered the flow to produce a sheet of uniform weight. To accommodate increased speed in modern headboxes, the knife slice is designed to develop a jet of liquid stock on the moving wire. Modern headboxes are enclosed, with pressure maintained by pumping.

The Fourdrinier table section of a paper machine is a large framework that supports the table rolls, breast roll, couch roll, suction boxes, wire rolls, and other Fourdrinier parts. The wire mesh upon which the sheet of fibre is formed is a continuous rotating belt that forms a loop around the Fourdrinier frame. The wire, not a permanent part of the machine, is delicate and requires periodic replacement. It is a finely woven metal or synthetic fibre cloth that allows drainage of the water but retains most of the fibres. The strands of the Fourdrinier wire are usually made of specially annealed bronze or brass, finely drawn and woven into a web commonly in the range of 55 to 85 mesh (strands per inch). Even finer wires are used for such grades as cigarette paper, coarser wires for heavy paperboard and pulp sheets. Various types of weave are used to obtain maximum wire life.

The table rolls, in addition to supporting the wire, function as water-removal devices. The rapidly rotating roll in contact with the underside of the wire produces a suction or pumping action that increases the drainage of water through the wire.

The dandy roll is a light, open-structured unit covered with wire cloth and placed on the wire between suction boxes, resting lightly upon the wire and the surface of the sheet. Its function is to flatten the top surface of the sheet and improve the finish. When the dandy roll leaves a mesh or crosshatch pattern, the paper is said to be "woven." When parallel, translucent lines are produced, it is said to be "laid." When names, insignia, or designs are formed, the paper is said to be "watermarked." Paper watermarks have served to identify the makers of fine papers since the early days of the art. A watermark is actually a thin part of the sheet and is visible because of greater transmission of light in its area compared with other areas of the sheet. Because light transmission can be varied by degrees, it is possible to produce watermarks in the form of portraits or pictures.

The final roll over which the formed sheet passes, before removal from the Fourdrinier wire, is the couch roll. Prior to the transferring operation, the couch roll must remove water from and consolidate the sheet to strengthen it. In modern machines the couch roll is almost always a suction roll.

The press section increases the solids content of the sheet of paper by removing some of the free water contained in the sheet after it is formed. It then carries the paper from the forming unit to the dryer section without disrupting or disturbing sheet structure and reduces the bulk or thickness of the paper.

The first two functions are always necessary. Pressing always results in compaction, and this may or may not be desirable depending upon the grades being made.

Felts for the press section act as conveyor belts to assist the sheet through the presses, as porous media to provide space and channels for water removal, as textured cushions or shock absorbers for pressing the moist sheet without crushing or significant marking, and as power transfer belts to drive nondriven rolls or parts.

Woven felts of wool, often with up to 50 percent synthetic fibres, are made by a modified woolen textile system. Selected grades of wool are scoured, blended, carded, and spun into yarn. The yarn is woven into flat goods, leaving a fringe at each end. The ends are brought together and joined to produce an endless, substantially seamless belt.

Paper machine felts have a limited life ranging from about a week to several months. Their strength and water-removal ability is gradually lost through wear and chemical and bacterial degradation and by becoming clogged with foreign material.

Press rolls must be strong, rigid, and well-balanced to span the wide, modern machines and run at high speed without distortion and vibration. Solid press rolls consist of a steel or cast iron core, covered with rubber of various hardnesses depending upon the particular service required. Suction press rolls consist of a bronze or stainless steel shell two inches (five centimetres) or more in thickness and usually covered with one inch of rubber.

Paper leaving the press section of the machine has a solids content or dryness of 32 to 40 percent. Because of the relatively high cost of removing water by evaporation, compared with removing it by mechanical means, the sheet must be as dry as possible when it enters the dryers. The dryer section of a conventional paper machine consists of from 40 to 70 steam-heated drying cylinders. After passing around the cylinders, the sheet is held in intimate contact with the heated surfaces by means of dryer felts.

Until recent years, relatively heavy, rather impermeable cloths composed of wool, cotton, asbestos, or combinations of these materials covered the dryer portion of the paper machine. Such cloths are termed dryer felts, though felting or fulling process is rarely used in their manufacture. Relatively lightweight, highly permeable cloths called dryer fabric also are employed.

For conventional dryer felts, cotton is still the most commonly used fibre, although it is seldom used alone. The main difference between the conventional dryer felt and the open-mesh dryer fabric is air or vapour permeability. High permeability is desirable because it allows the escape of the water vapour from the sheet.

For every ton of paper dried on the paper machine, approximately two tons of water are evaporated into the atmosphere. About 50 to 60 tons of air are required to remove the water vapour, with about 2,700 kilograms (6,000 pounds) of steam required by the dryers.

Finishing and Converting
The rolls of paper produced by the paper machine must still undergo a number of operations before the paper becomes useful to the consumer. These various operations are referred to as converting or finishing and often make use of intricate and fast-moving machinery.

There are two distinct types of paper conversion. One is referred to as wet converting, in which paper in roll form is coated, impregnated, and laminated with various applied materials to improve properties for special purposes. The second is referred to as dry converting, in which paper in roll form is converted into such items as bags, envelopes, boxes, small rolls, and packs of sheets. A few of the more important converting operations are described here.

Paper has been coated to improve its surface for better reproduction of printed images for over 100 years. The introduction of half-tone and colour printing has created a strong demand for coated paper. Coatings are applied to paper to achieve uniformity of surface for printing inks, lacquers, and the like; to obtain printed images without blemishes visible to the eye; to enhance opacity, smoothness, and gloss of paper or paperboard; and to achieve economy in the weight and composition of base paper stock by the upgrading effect of coating.

The chief components of the water dispersion used for coating paper are pigment, which may be clay, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, satin white, or combinations of these; dispersants to give uniformity to the mixture or the "slip"; and an adhesive binder to give coherence to the finished coating. The latter may be a natural material such as starch or a synthetic material such as latex.

Equipment installed between dryer sections on the paper machine can apply the coating (on-machine coating), or it can be done by a separate machine, using rolls of paper as feed stock (off-machine coating).

The extrusion-coating process, a relatively new development in the application of functional coating, has gained major importance in the past 20 years. The process is used to apply polyethylene plastic coatings to all grades of paper and paperboard. Polyethylene resin has ideal properties for use with packaging paper, being waterproof; resistant to grease, water vapour, and gases; highly stable; flexible in heat sealing; and free from odour and toxicity.

In the extrusion-coating machine, the polyethylene resin is melted in a thermoplastic extruder that consists of a drive screw within an electrically heated cylinder. The cylinder melts and compacts the resin granules and extrudes the melt in a continuous flow under high pressure. The resin is discharged through a film-forming slot die. The die has electric heaters with precision temperature controls to give uniform temperature and viscosity to the plastic melt. The slot opening can be precisely adjusted to control film uniformity and thickness.

The hot extruded film is then stretched and combined with paper between a pair of rolls, one of which is a rubber-covered pressure roll and the other a water-cooled, chromium-plated steel roll. The combination takes place so rapidly that a permanent bond is created between the plastic film and the paper before they are cooled by the steel roll.

The most widely used package for commodities and manufactured products is the corrugated shipping container. A corrugated box consists of two structural elements: the facings (linerboard) and the fluting structure (corrugating medium).

Linerboard facings are of two general types: the Fourdrinier kraft liner is made of pine kraft pulp, usually unbleached, in an integrated mill as a continuous process from the tree to the paper web; and the cylinder liner is made from reprocessed fibres, generally from used containers, providing a content of about two-thirds kraft.

The operation begins by unwinding the single-face liner and corrugating medium from holders, threading the medium into the fluting rolls, applying adhesive to the tips, and bringing the medium in contact with the liner to form a single-face web. Next, the single-face web passes another glue roll that applies adhesive to the exposed flute tips of the medium. The second face liner is brought in contact with the single-face web, and the combined board travels through a hot plate section between belts to set the bond, to a cooling section, and then to a slitter-scorer.

The World Paper Industry
The paper industry tends to be concentrated in those countries that are industrially advanced and have abundant supplies of fibrous raw material, especially wood. There is a large-scale international trade in wood pulp, pulpwood, and paper flowing from those countries with large forest resources to those countries with less or that are as yet undeveloped.

Strength and Durability
The strength of paper is determined by the following factors in combination:

  • The strength of the individual fibres of the stock,
  • The average length of the fibre,
  • The interfibre bonding ability of the fibre, which is enhanced by the beating and refining action,
  • The structure and formation of the sheet.

Resistance to rupture when subjected to various stresses is an important property in practically all grades of paper. Most papers require a certain minimum strength to withstand the treatment received by the product in use; but even where use requirements are not severe, the paper must be strong enough to permit efficient handling in manufacture. Tensile strength is the greatest longitudinal stress a piece of paper can bear without tearing apart. The stress is expressed as the force per unit width of a test specimen.

Since the weight of the paper and the width of the test specimen affect the force of rupture, a conventional method of comparing inherent paper strength is the breaking length--that is, the length of a paper strip in metres that would be just self-supporting. This value varies from about 500 metres for extremely soft, weak tissue to about 8,000 metres for strong kraft bag paper, and to about 14,000 metres for sheets of paper made under ideal laboratory conditions.

Because some paper products such as towels, sanitary tissues, and filter paper are subjected to wetting by water in their normal use, wet tensile testing has become important. This test is essentially the same as that for dry tensile strength, except that the specimen is wetted. Paper that has not been specifically treated to produce wet strength possesses from about 4 to about 8 percent of its dry strength when completely wetted. By treating paper as described above, wet strength can be raised to about 40 percent of the dry strength.

One of the oldest and most widely used strength tests for paper and paperboard is the bursting test, or Mullen test. It is defined as the hydrostatic pressure (caused by liquids at rest) necessary to cause rupture in a circular area of a given diameter. Other strength tests for which standard methods exist are tearing strength and folding endurance.

The resistance of paper to a bending force is evident in the various operations of its manufacture and in its many uses. The range in this property extends from very soft, flexible tissues to rigid boards. Thicker and heavier sheets tend to be stiff, whereas soft, flexible sheets are light and thin. Even at the same weight there is a considerable difference in stiffness, chiefly due to the compactness and the amount of bonding of the sheet.

Because paper is composed of a randomly felted layer of fibre, the structure has a varying degree of porosity. Thus, the ability of fluids, both liquid and gaseous, to penetrate the structure is a property both highly significant to the use of paper and capable of being widely varied by the conditions of manufacture.

Sizing paper with vegetable materials and rosinlike substances has already been described. When paper began to be used for wrapping, consumers demanded sizing treatments that could protect the contents of the package from the effects of fluid transfer through the paper wrapping. In some instances complete impermeability was required. In another direction the use of paper as an absorbent medium for wiping up liquids, for filtering, and for saturating has created a demand for maximum wettability and permeability toward water and other fluids.

In certain types of packaging, paper must resist grease and oil penetration. The resistance of paper to the penetration of water can be increased by treatment of fibre with materials that lack affinity for water, with little effect upon sheet porosity, but the penetration of oil materials is little affected by such treatment. Oil and grease resistance is attained, in fact, by reduction in porosity. So-called greaseproof paper is made by beating an easily hydrated pulp to extremely low freeness, which results in a dense sheet with very little void space.

Absorbent papers such as toweling, sanitary tissue, and blotting and filter paper are normally made from lightly beaten stock. Since cellulose is naturally hydrophilic (i.e., has a strong affinity for water), absorbent papers have a minimum of foreign materials associated with the fibre. Of particular importance are the wood rosins that may be present in pulp and produce a self-sizing effect, especially upon aging.

Optical Properties
The most important optical properties of paper are brightness , colour, opacity, and gloss.

The term brightness has come to mean the degree to which white or near-white papers and paperboard reflect the light of the blue end of the spectrum (i.e., their reflectance). This reflectance is measured by an instrument that illuminates paper at an average angle of incidence of 45º and a wavelength of 457 (microns). Brightness measured in this way is found to correlate closely with subjective estimates of the relative whiteness of paper.

Opacity is one of the most desired properties of printing and writing papers. Satisfactory performance of such papers requires that there be little or no "show-through" of images from one side of the sheet to the other. Satisfactory opacity in printing papers requires that white mineral pigments be incorporated with the paper stock or applied as a coating.

The terms gloss, glare, finish, and smoothness are used in describing the surface characteristics of paper. The broad term finish refers to the general surface characteristics of the sheet. Smoothness refers to the absence of surface irregularities under either visual or use conditions. Gloss refers to surface lustre and connotes a generally pleasing aspect. Glare is used for a more intense reflection and a more unpleasant effect. Calendering and coating are important paper-treating methods that affect gloss. Gloss of paper is determined by measuring percent reflectance at a low angle of incidence, 15 degrees (75 degrees from the perpendicular).